Church and state were intertwined when the Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in 313. While it meant Christians no longer were persecuted, new challenges and difficulties awaited believers. Resolution of doctrinal arguments was now a political problem as much as anything. At best, such theological clashes meant that Christians would not talk to each other and, at worst, they killed each other.

These disputes touched the heart of Christian faith, such as the heresy of the priest Arius, who taught that Jesus Christ was not consubstantial with God the Father. While denounced at the Council of Nicaea in 325, his teachings did not die soon enough. His and other heresies debated at other councils enmeshed much of the life of the early church.

St. Athanasius (296-373) was perhaps the st

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