As ChatGPT really started to take off back in 2023, an Austin pastor made minor headlines when he used the large language model (LLM) chatbot to lead a 15-minute "shotgun sermon." The stunt was largely meant to spark a conversation about how we define "what is sacred," the pastor said at the time.

Since that lesson in theological ethics, chatbots have become ubiquitous — and they no longer come with lectures. Now in 2025, LLM chatbots are being increasingly made to stand in for therapists, teachers, military officers, and even lovers.

To understand their use in the religious community, South African philosophy scholar Anné H. Verhoef recently embarked on a survey of five popular theological chatbots, analyzing their chat habits, adherence to Christian scripture, and the groups behind the

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