A heavily-bearded Muslim man smiles wickedly at the terrified woman next to him. A muscular man in a saffron dhoti walks in the rain carrying a young woman wearing a headscarf. A man in a skullcap wields a knife below a sign that reads “Abdul beef shop” while cows weep outside.

Images like these generated by artificial intelligence tools, featuring stereotypical Muslim men with exaggerated evil features and sexualised Muslim women, are being widely circulated on major social media platforms in India. They are being used to illustrate Hindutva conspiracy theories or bolster hateful narratives about Muslims in the country.

While the use of social media to spread hate about minorities in India has been widely documented, the proliferation of Artificial Intelligence tools that makes it much

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