Except for brief periods since 1947, Pakistan-Afghanistan ties have been marked by mutual distrust, rancour, recriminations, and hostility. This has led sometimes to armed clashes, as were seen recently.

This negativity between Pakistan and Afghanistan has continued during both civilian and direct military rule in the former, and fundamental system transformations, turmoil and two failed superpower interventions in the latter— by the Soviet Union (1979-1989) and the United States (2001-2021). During both, Pakistan has helped the Afghan resistance.

Regime changes in Afghanistan

Afghanistan witnessed the end of the monarchy in 1973, and a brief period of nationalist rule followed by 11 years under a communist government till 1989, during which the state unsuccessfully sought to change so

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