B iotechnology in agriculture from first-generation transgenic crops (Bt, herbicide tolerance) to the new wave of gene-editing (CRISPR and related New Genomic Techniques, NGTs) has reshaped how societies think about productivity, food security and seed systems. Globally, a concentrated but expanding set of countries and crops have adopted biotech traits at scale, producing tangible agronomic and commercial benefits in particular contexts. At the same time, rapidly evolving science and deeply political social concerns have produced regulatory fragmentation, trade frictions, and vociferous public debate. India’s experience typifies that tension: it embraced Bt cotton widely and yet remains broadly resistant to commercializing most GM food crops a stance driven by equity concerns, biodivers

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