In the spring of 1855, school officials in Pottsville, Pa., gathered to debate how to protect their community from a deadly epidemic. The year before, smallpox had closed schools early, leaving behind sickness, fear, and death in its wake.

Determined not to repeat that trauma, the Pottsville school board passed a resolution requiring every child to present a physician’s certificate of vaccination before being admitted to class in the coming school year.

Resistance stirred. Some parents bristled at the intrusion into family life. Others questioned the safety and effectiveness of the vaccine, despite decades of evidence showing its power to prevent large-scale, fatal outbreaks of the disease. Rumors spread among immigrant communities, and religious objections were raised by those who saw v

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